Occasionally I have cause to do a deep dive into word meanings.
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Hope as a concept means 'confident expectation' and relates to the idea of respectful acknowledgement of one's duties and obligations, especially as owed to someone greater than you, prostrating one's self to show this service.
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True relates to the word tree in the sense that a tree is not easily moved, compared to a stone boundary marker for instance. Possibly also relates to health in the sense of wishing someone to be as healthy (strong) as a tree.
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False (to falsify) relates to the idea of deceiving someone, and the word fall(s) with the idea of causing someone to stumble by your lie (from the idea that they lie down unintentionally after stumbling).
For most children the first word they learn is relational, either to mother or father
- Ma - mother in many languages has an inward sucking type of sound.
- Pa - father in many languages has an outward plosive type of sound.
One of the reasons that people find it difficult to learn English as a second language is that it is a blend of various other languages, which have each brought their own rules and grammar to the language. Many English words and grammar can be traced back to the Indo-European language family, a vast language group that includes languages as diverse as English, Sanskrit, Greek, Russian, German, Dutch, Swedish, and Icelandic.
| Period | Key Events | Linguistic Influences | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Indo-European (Before 4500 BC) | Hypothetical ancestral language | Little is known of Mesolithic and Neolithic era migrations and trade routes. | |
| Celtic Britain (500 BC - 43 AD) | Celtic tribes inhabit Britain | Celtic languages | The Celts had trade routes all across Europe. The Celtic languages are Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic (Scotland), Manx (Isle of Man), Welsh (Wales), Cornish (Cornwall), Breton (Brittany in France), Gaulish (France, extinct), Lepontic (northern Italy, extinct) and Celtiberian (Spain and Portugal, extinct). |
| Roman Britain (43 - 410) | Roman conquest and occupation | Latin | Roman empire grew from Rome in modern italy, partly influenced by Celtic, Etruscan and Greek cultures. Rome was trading with southern England well before the 43 AD invasion. |
| Anglo-Saxon England (450 - 1066) | Anglo-Saxon migration and settlement | Old English dialects | Anglo-Saxon comes from three neighbouring tribes: Jutes (northern), Angels (central) and Saxons (southern). The Jutes from Jutland in Denmark, settled in Kent and south-east England. The Angles from Angeln, in northern Germany, settled in Anglia in north-east England. The Saxons of Saxony, in northern Germany, settled in south and central England. |
| Norse Invasions (787 - 1066) | Viking raids and settlements | Old Norse | Old Norse had several dialects, including Old Icelandic, Old Norwegian, and Old Danish |
| Norman Conquest (1066) | Norman invasion of England | Old French | Everyday Latin of Roman Empire → Roman invasion of Gaul (France) → Old French |
| Middle English (1066 - 1500) | Linguistic blending and standardization | French, Latin, Greek, and other languages | Middle English was a crucial period in the development of modern English, as it marked the blending of Old English, Old French, and other languages, leading to the formation of a more standardized and flexible language. |
| Early Modern English (1500 - 1700) | Renaissance, Age of Exploration | Latin, Greek, and languages from colonized territories | Printed material became more widespread. The 'great vowel shift' occurred in this period where so-called 'educated' people changed the way they spoke. For example, the word "house" was pronounced as "hoos" in Middle English, but it now has the pronunciation "howz." This has changed how Modern English is spoken generally. |
| Modern English (1700 - Present) | Globalization, technological advancements | Diverse languages from around the world | English has become a global language, influenced by various cultures and languages. |
The Germanic language family, which includes English, German, Flemish and more, is a significant contributor to the English vocabulary. Words derived from Old English, a Germanic language, form the core of our everyday speech.
Germanic languages have also contributed significantly to English word formation through prefixes and suffixes:
- ge- (intensive or causative, a focal action, the process of forming like sense of cleaving): Gather, give, get, go, good, great
- be- (around, over): become, befall, begin
- ke- (also he-, this or here, a focus indicator). Here, hence, hither, (also there, thence, thither, where, whence, wither)
- pla- (flat): Plateau, plane, plain, placate, placard, plaudit
- sta- (to stand): Stand, statue, stature, steadfast, estate
- pat- (father): Pater, paternal, paternity, patron
- mat- (mother): Maternal, matrimony, matrix
- aqua- (water): Aquamarine, aquarium, aquatic
- break- (to break): Break, breakfast, outbreak, heartbreak
- come- (to come): Come, income, outcome, become
- luc- (light): Lucid, translucent, elucidate
- eat- (eat): Eat, eating, appetite
- for- (before, away): forget, forgive, forbid
- fōt- (foot): Foot, footpath, football
- gen- (to be born): Generate, genesis, genealogy, congenial
- hand- (hand): Hand, handmade, handy
- hear- (hear): Hear, heart, hearsay
- hold- (to hold): Hold, behold, withhold, uphold
- hous- (house, dwelling): House, household, housewife
- kin- (family, kin): Kin, kindred, kind, king
- land- (land, geography) land, landscape, landlord, landlady, landing, landslide
- mis- (wrong, bad): mistake, misfortune, mislead
- out- (beyond, outside): outside, outgo, outlaw
- terra- (earth): Terrestrial, territory, subterranean
- un- (not): unhappy, unkind, unable
- vid- (to see): Vision, evident, video, provide
- -dom (state, condition): kingdom, freedom, wisdom
- -er Agent (included for reference, discussed previously) baker, teacher, singer
- -est Superlative adjective (included for reference, related to -er) biggest, fastest, strongest
- -ful (full of): careful, beautiful, hopeful
- -ing (present participle): walking, singing, coming
- -less Without careless, hopeless, fearless
- -ly (in a certain manner, not purely Germanic): quickly, happily, slowly
- -ness (state or quality): happiness, kindness, weakness
- -ship (state, condition, office): friendship, lordship, workmanship
- -th Ordinal number first, fifth, tenth
- -ward Direction northward, eastward, homeward
- -wise Manner clockwise, lengthwise, otherwise
An interesting phenomenon in English is the existence of doublets, pairs of words with similar meanings but different origins, often with one word being Germanic and the other Latinate.
- Friend/amicable: Both mean 'friendly,' but 'friend' is Germanic, while 'amicable' comes from Latin.
- Begin/commence: Both mean 'start,' but 'begin' is Germanic, while 'commence' is Latinate.
- Help/assist: Both mean 'aid,' but 'help' is Germanic, while 'assist' is Latinate.
- Ask/question: Both mean 'inquire,' but 'ask' is Germanic, while 'question' is Latinate.
- Strong/forceful: Both mean 'powerful,' but 'strong' is Germanic, while 'forceful' is Latinate.
- fader (father): father, fatherland, paternity
- moder (mother): mother, motherhood, maternal
- brodher (brother): brother, brotherhood, fraternal
- suster (sister): sister, sisterhood, sorority
- wind (wind): wind, windy, windmill
- water (water): water, watery, underwater
- fire (fire): fire, fiery, fireplace
Germanic languages often form complex words by combining root words. This compounding process is evident in English as well:
- housewife: house + wife
- fireplace: fire + place
- shipbuilding: ship + building
- dreamland: dream + land
- starlight: star + light
Germanic languages have also influenced other languages:
- Dutch: gezellig (cozy)
- German: Kindergarten (kindergarten), Wanderlust (desire to travel)
- Scandinavian: saga (story)
- French: guerre (war), garde (guard)
- Italian: guerra (war), guancia (cheek)
Some common English words with Germanic origins:
- Body parts: arm, leg, eye, ear, nose, mouth
- Nature: sky, earth, hill, tree, river, stone
- Food: bread, cheese, meat, fish, butter, milk
- Everyday actions: go, come, sit, stand, sleep, wake
- Social interactions: friend, love, hate, laugh, cry, speak
Many powerful and evocative words in English literature have Germanic roots:
- Old English poetry: Beowulf contains a rich tapestry of Germanic words and poetic devices.
- Shakespeare: While Shakespeare borrowed from various languages, his work is filled with Germanic expressions.
Disclaimer: These are my opinion, generally based on known etymologies, but extending the meanings based on known historical cultural practices, etc. in places